Henry Alfred Kissinger (May 27, 1923 – November 29, 2023) was an American diplomat, political scientist, and statesman who served as national security advisor from 1969 to 1975 and later as U.S. secretary of state from 1973 to 1977 under Presidents Richard Nixon and Gerald Ford. Born in Germany, he fled Nazi persecution with his Jewish family in 1938 and later became a U.S. citizen. During World War II, he served in the U.S. Army before pursuing higher education at Harvard University, where he eventually became a professor and gained recognition as an expert in nuclear strategy and foreign policy.

Kissinger became known for promoting a pragmatic foreign policy approach often described as Realpolitik. He played major roles in easing tensions with the Soviet Union, opening diplomatic relations with China, conducting Middle East “shuttle diplomacy” after the Yom Kippur War, and negotiating the Paris Peace Accords that ended U.S. involvement in Vietnam—an effort that earned him the 1973 Nobel Peace Prize, though it was controversial. He was also linked to disputed U.S. policies, including the bombing of Cambodia and support for various authoritarian regimes, leading critics to accuse him of contributing to human rights abuses.

After leaving government service, Kissinger founded the consulting firm Kissinger Associates in 1982 and wrote numerous books on diplomacy and international relations. He remained an influential adviser sought by leaders from both major U.S. political parties throughout the rest of his life.

Kissinger served as both National Security Advisor and Secretary of State under President Richard Nixon and continued as Secretary of State under Gerald Ford. He maintained an unusually close working relationship with Nixon, with the two often relying on secrecy and backchannel diplomacy to shape U.S. foreign policy, sometimes sidelining the State Department.

A leading advocate of Realpolitik, Kissinger played a central role in directing U.S. foreign policy between 1969 and 1977. He helped advance détente with the Soviet Union, easing Cold War tensions, and was instrumental in opening diplomatic relations with China through secret negotiations with Premier Zhou Enlai. His efforts also contributed to the 1972 summit between Nixon and Mao Zedong, marking a major shift in global geopolitics.

Kissinger was deeply involved in Vietnam War diplomacy, ultimately helping negotiate the Paris Peace Accords in 1973 alongside North Vietnamese leader Lê Đức Thọ. While the agreement led to the withdrawal of U.S. forces, it did not bring lasting peace, and the Nobel Peace Prize awarded for the negotiations was widely criticized.

He also played a key role in controversial policies, including the U.S. bombing campaign in Cambodia and broader involvement in Southeast Asia, which contributed to significant civilian casualties and regional instability. His actions during conflicts such as the Bangladesh Liberation War, as well as U.S. involvement in Latin America and other regions, have drawn lasting criticism from scholars and human rights advocates.

In the Middle East, Kissinger led “shuttle diplomacy” following the Yom Kippur War, helping broker ceasefires and laying groundwork for future agreements between Israel and its neighbors. His diplomatic efforts strengthened U.S. influence in the region, though they also contributed to tensions such as the 1973 oil embargo.

Despite his strategic achievements, Kissinger remains one of the most debated figures in modern U.S. foreign policy—praised for reshaping global diplomacy while criticized for supporting authoritarian regimes and prioritizing strategic interests over human rights. 

Julius Sello Malema (born March 3, 1981) is a South African politician and the founder and leader of the Economic Freedom Fighters (EFF), a political party established in 2013. Before forming the EFF, he served as president of the African National Congress Youth League (ANCYL) from 2008 until his expulsion from the African National Congress (ANC) in 2012. He gained national prominence as a vocal supporter of Jacob Zuma and advocated policies such as nationalizing South Africa’s mining industry and land expropriation without compensation.

Malema’s relationship with Zuma later deteriorated, and by 2012 he was campaigning for Zuma’s removal. After his expulsion from the ANC, he founded the EFF, which entered Parliament in 2014 with 25 seats. Throughout his career, Malema has faced several legal controversies, including convictions for hate speech and charges related to fraud and money laundering, though some cases were dismissed due to delays. In 2025, he was again convicted of hate speech, and in October 2025 he was convicted on multiple firearm-related offenses stemming from an EFF rally. These convictions could potentially lead to a significant prison sentence and disqualification from Parliament, depending on the outcome of appeals.

Malema was born in Seshego near Polokwane in Limpopo and was raised by his mother, a domestic worker, and later by his grandmother. He became politically active at a young age, joining ANC-related youth movements and rising through student leadership roles. He completed his education at Mohlakaneng High School and later studied at the University of South Africa, earning degrees in communications, African languages, and philosophy, and later enrolling in a master’s program at the University of the Witwatersrand.

He was elected president of the ANC Youth League in 2008 after a contentious campaign. During this period, he was known for outspoken rhetoric and controversial political positions. His conduct led to disciplinary proceedings within the ANC, and following further disputes—particularly regarding remarks about Botswana—he was suspended and ultimately expelled from the party in 2012.

After leaving the ANC, Malema launched the Economic Freedom Fighters in 2013. The party advocates economic transformation, including nationalization of key industries and land reform. Malema has remained a prominent and polarizing figure in South African politics, known for his strong rhetoric, legal challenges, and influence among younger voters.

Umar Makram (1750–1822) was an influential Egyptian religious scholar, political leader, and early national figure who played a major role in Egypt’s resistance movements during a period of foreign invasion and political transition.

He was born in 1750 in Asyut, Upper Egypt, and received his education at Al-Azhar University in Cairo, one of the leading centers of Islamic learning in the Muslim world. Through his scholarship and leadership, Makram rose to prominence among Egypt’s religious and social elites and became a respected spokesman for the Egyptian people.

Makram gained national recognition during the French invasion of Egypt in 1798, led by Napoleon Bonaparte. He helped organize and lead popular resistance against French occupation, strengthening his reputation as a defender of Egyptian independence and public interests.

After the French withdrawal in 1801, Egypt entered a period of political instability marked by rivalry among the Mamluks, the Ottoman Empire, and Britain. Although Egypt formally returned to Ottoman control, real authority remained contested. During this struggle, Umar Makram supported Muhammad Ali, commander of the Albanian troops sent by the Ottoman Empire to restore order.

In May 1805, Egyptian leaders and citizens, led by Umar Makram, pressured the Ottoman Sultan Selim III to remove the unpopular governor Ahmed Khurshid Pasha and appoint Muhammad Ali as Wali (governor) of Egypt. This popular movement marked a significant moment in Egyptian political history, demonstrating the influence of local leadership over imperial decisions. Britain opposed Muhammad Ali’s rise and later attempted to challenge his rule during the Alexandria expedition of 1807, which ultimately failed.

However, Makram soon realized that Muhammad Ali intended to consolidate personal control over Egypt rather than govern in partnership with local leaders. Opposing what he viewed as authoritarian rule by another foreign-born ruler, Makram criticized Muhammad Ali’s policies. In response, Muhammad Ali exiled him to Damietta on 9 August 1809, where he remained for four years.

After his exile, Umar Makram relocated to Tanta, where he lived until his death in 1822. Today, he is remembered as an important early figure in Egyptian political activism and nationalism, noted for his leadership against foreign domination and his role in shaping Egypt’s transition into the modern era.