Enūma Eliš (Akkadian cuneiform: 𒂊𒉡𒈠𒂊𒇺), also spelled Enuma Elish, meaning “When on High,” is a Babylonian creation epic named after its opening words. Composed in the late second millennium BCE, it is the only complete surviving account of ancient Near Eastern cosmology. The text was discovered in fragmentary form in 1849 by the English archaeologist Austen Henry Layard in the ruined Library of Ashurbanipal at Nineveh (modern Mosul, Iraq). It was first published in 1876 by the Assyriologist George Smith. Subsequent excavations and research gradually reconstructed the text and refined its translation.
The epic comprises roughly one thousand lines written in Akkadian on seven clay tablets, each containing between 115 and 170 lines of Sumero-Akkadian cuneiform. Although much of Tablet V remains missing, the work is otherwise nearly complete.
Across its seven tablets, Enūma Eliš recounts the creation of the cosmos, the conflict among the gods culminating in the elevation of Marduk, the creation of humanity to serve the gods, and a concluding hymn praising Marduk through a series of exalted titles. Marduk’s rise to supremacy is commonly associated with the Second Dynasty of Isin, particularly following the return of his statue from Elam by Nebuchadnezzar I, though some scholars suggest a Kassite-era origin. The epic may have been recited during the Akitu (New Year) festival.
Background and Discovery
Before the tablets were uncovered, elements of the myth were known through the writings of Berossus, a Babylonian priest of Marduk. His work, Babyloniaca, survives indirectly through later authors such as Eusebius. Berossus described a primordial watery darkness inhabited by hybrid beings, ruled by a female entity named Omoroca (identified with Tiamat). He recounted her defeat by Bel (Marduk), who divided her body to form heaven and earth, and described humanity’s creation from divine blood mixed with earth. He also told of Oannes, a fish-man sage who taught humanity civilization.
During excavations at Kuyunjik (Nineveh) between 1848 and 1876, Layard, Hormuzd Rassam, and George Smith recovered thousands of tablet fragments from the palace-library of Ashurbanipal. Smith identified flood and creation myths among the fragments, noting parallels with biblical narratives. His discoveries attracted public attention and prompted further expeditions funded by The Daily Telegraph.
By the early twentieth century, additional fragments allowed scholars such as L W King to reconstruct the epic substantially. King published The Seven Tablets of Creation (1902), establishing the now-standard seven-tablet structure. Later German excavations uncovered Assyrian variants replacing Marduk with Ashur and clarified that Kingu, not Marduk, was sacrificed to create humanity. By the mid-twentieth century, nearly the entire text was known, except for large portions of Tablet V.
Date and Composition
The earliest manuscript dates to the 9th century BCE, found at Assur, though the composition likely predates this and may have existed in oral tradition. While once attributed to the reign of Hammurabi, most scholars now favor a date in the Second Dynasty of Isin. During the Old Babylonian period, Marduk was not yet supreme; his elevation appears to have developed later. Some scholars have proposed a Kassite date, though this remains debated.
Content Overview
The epic opens in primordial time, when only Apsu (fresh water) and Tiamat (salt water) existed. From their mingling emerged successive generations of gods. Disturbed by the younger gods’ noise, Apsu plotted their destruction but was slain by Ea. In response, Tiamat created monstrous beings and appointed Kingu as her champion.
The gods chose Marduk as their defender. In exchange for supreme authority, he defeated Tiamat in cosmic battle, split her body to form heaven and earth, established celestial order, and organized the cosmos. Humanity was created from Kingu’s blood to relieve the gods of labor. The epic concludes with a lengthy hymn celebrating Marduk’s fifty exalted names.
Variants and Ritual Use
Multiple copies of the tablets have been found, both Assyrian and Babylonian. Some later versions substitute Ashur for Marduk. A bilingual tablet in the British Museum preserves an alternative creation account involving the goddess Aruru.
A Seleucid-period ritual text suggests that Enūma Eliš was recited during the Akitu festival, symbolizing renewal and the triumph of order over chaos. Some scholars interpret the ritual context as political theater reinforcing royal authority.
Comparative Mythology and Biblical Parallels
Enūma Eliš shares themes with other Near Eastern myths, including the Atrahasis epic and the Anzû myth. It also parallels biblical passages in Genesis, particularly regarding primordial waters, cosmic division, and the structured sequence of creation. However, key differences remain: the Babylonian epic is polytheistic and portrays creation as emerging from divine conflict, whereas Genesis presents a monotheistic, sovereign creation by divine command.
Scholars have proposed various explanations for these similarities, including cultural transmission during the Babylonian exile, shared ancient traditions, or polemical adaptation. Some argue that Genesis intentionally responds to Mesopotamian cosmology by asserting divine transcendence over chaotic forces.
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