The Great Seal of the Realm is the official seal used in the United Kingdom to signify the sovereign’s approval of important state documents, given today on the advice of the government in power. It is also known as the Great Seal of the United Kingdom. Before the Treaty of Union in 1707, it was called the Great Seal of England, and from 1707 until the Union of 1801, it was known as the Great Seal of Great Britain. The seal is made by softening thermoplastic granules, once wax, in a silver mould or matrix, then impressing them into a plastic figure attached by cord or ribbon to documents the monarch wishes to seal officially. The formal keeper of the seal is the Lord High Chancellor of Great Britain.

Scotland has maintained its own great seal since the 14th century. Although the Acts of Union 1707 united Scotland and England under a single Great Seal for the new Kingdom of Great Britain, they also preserved a separate Scottish seal for use in Scotland. This seal, still known as the Great Seal of Scotland, continues to be used by the monarch when signing letters patent for bills passed by the Scottish Parliament. In the same way, the Great Seal of Ireland, used since the 13th century, remained in use after the Union of 1801 until the Irish Free State seceded. After that, a new Great Seal of Northern Ireland was created. A Welsh Seal was later introduced in 2011.

Sometime before 1066, Edward the Confessor began using what became known as a “Great Seal,” creating a wax impression of his own face to show that a document carried the force of his authority. With a few exceptions, each monarch after him, up to 1603, selected a unique design for the Great Seal. Levina Teerlinc is believed to have designed the seal of Queen Mary I, as well as the earliest seal used by her successor, Elizabeth I, in the 1540s.

When Parliament opened on 3 September 1654, Lord Protector Oliver Cromwell was accompanied by the three Commissioners of the Great Seal of the Commonwealth of England: Whitelock, Lisle, and Widdrington. Their seal bore the inscription “The Great Seal of England, 1648” and showed a map of England, Ireland, Jersey, and Guernsey on one side, with the arms of England and Ireland. The reverse depicted the interior of the House of Commons with the Speaker in his chair and the inscription, “In the first year of Freedom, by God’s blessing restored, 1648.” In 1655, Cromwell appointed three Commissioners of the Great Seal of Ireland, but they served only until 1656, when he named William Steele Lord Chancellor of Ireland.

In 1688, during his attempted flight to France in the Glorious Revolution, James II is said to have tried to destroy the Great Seal by throwing it into the River Thames, hoping to halt the machinery of government. However, his successors, William III and Mary II, used the same seal matrix for their new Great Seal, likely to emphasize continuity of government. A new obverse was made, while the reverse was altered more roughly by adding a female figure beside the male one. After Mary’s death, the obverse reverted to James II’s design, and the female figure was removed from the reverse. As a result, William III’s seal was almost identical to James II’s, apart from changes to the legend and coat of arms.

The 1922 secession of the Irish Free State led to a change in the royal style, agreed at the 1926 Imperial Conference and implemented by the Royal and Parliamentary Titles Act 1927. A new Great Seal was then created to reflect the new royal title. The 1927 Act referred to it as the “Great Seal of the Realm,” rather than the more common “Great Seal of the United Kingdom,” because the latter was considered too limited and did not fully reflect its use in relation to other Dominions of the British Commonwealth.

Edward VIII, who abdicated only months after taking the throne, never chose a design for his own seal and continued to use that of George V. Only one matrix of the Great Seal exists at any one time, and because the material has a high melting point, the silver plates used to cast it gradually wear out. Long-reigning monarchs have therefore needed several Great Seals during their reigns. Queen Victoria, for example, selected four different designs over her sixty-three years on the throne.

The last seal matrix of Elizabeth II was approved by the Privy Council in July 2001. Designed by James Butler, it replaced the 1953 version created by Gilbert Ledward. Its obverse shows Elizabeth II enthroned and robed, holding a sceptre in her right hand and an orb in her left. Around the edge appears an abbreviated Latin form of her royal titles. The reverse displays the full royal arms, including crest, mantling, and supporters. This was the first English or British Great Seal to feature the royal arms as the principal design on one side. The 1953 obverse, by contrast, had shown the Queen on horseback in uniform, riding sidesaddle as she did at the annual Trooping the Colour ceremony for many years. The seal measures six inches in diameter, and the combined weight of both sides of the seal matrix exceeds 275 troy ounces. In May 2025, Charles III’s Great Seal of the Realm was unveiled and approved for use by Order in Council on 6 May.

Today, the Great Seal is attached to official state documents that require the monarch’s authorization in order to carry out the advice of His Majesty’s Government. Under current practice, dark green wax seals are used on letters patent that elevate individuals to the peerage, blue seals authorize matters relating to the royal family, and scarlet seals are used for appointing bishops and other affairs of state. In some cases, the seal is replaced by a wafer version, a smaller representation of the obverse embossed on coloured paper and attached to the document. This simpler form is used for royal proclamations, letters patent granting royal assent to legislation, writs of summons to Parliament, licences for the election of bishops, commissions of the peace, and many other documents. In earlier times, forging the Great Seal was considered treason.

The Great Seal of the Realm remains in the custody of the Lord Keeper of the Great Seal, an office that has been held jointly with that of Lord Chancellor since 1761. The current Lord Chancellor is David Lammy. The Constitutional Reform Act 2005 reaffirmed that the Lord Chancellor remains the custodian of the Great Seal. In the past, however, the seal was sometimes delivered to and kept by the sovereign when it was used for instruments concerning gifts or emoluments granted to the Lord Chancellor.

The Clerk of the Crown in Chancery, who also serves as Permanent Secretary of the Ministry of Justice, heads His Majesty’s Crown Office and is responsible for the affixing of the Great Seal. This official is assisted by the Deputy Clerk of the Crown, while day-to-day custody is entrusted to the Clerk of the Chamber, supported by subordinate officers including a Sealer and two Scribes in His Majesty’s Crown Office.

The Use of the Great Seal of the Realm Today and Its Parallel in the United States

Today, the Great Seal of the Realm in the United Kingdom represents the monarch’s official approval of state authority. It is the final mark that gives legal force to important government actions—used on documents such as letters patent, appointments, and matters of national significance. Though it carries the authority of the sovereign, it is applied on the advice of the elected government, reflecting a constitutional monarchy where power flows through both tradition and modern governance.

In contrast, the United States does not operate under a monarchy, yet it has its own equivalent symbol of national authority: the Great Seal of the United States. Instead of representing a king or queen, the American seal represents the authority of the nation itself—“We the People.” It is used to authenticate official documents such as treaties, commissions, and presidential proclamations, functioning as the federal government’s highest emblem of legitimacy.

While the British Great Seal is physically impressed onto documents using wax or embossed forms, the American Great Seal is most often stamped or printed. Its imagery—an eagle holding arrows and an olive branch—symbolizes both war and peace, authority and balance. In this way, it reflects a republic rather than a crown.

The key difference lies in where authority is rooted.

• In the United Kingdom, the seal represents authority flowing from the sovereign, even though it is exercised through government advice.

• In the United States, the seal represents authority flowing from the Constitution and the people, embodied through elected leadership.

Yet despite these differences, both seals serve a similar purpose: they legitimize power, authorize action, and mark documents as carrying the full weight of the state.

In the modern world, where digital systems dominate governance, both seals still stand as enduring symbols. They remind us that behind every law, appointment, or proclamation, there must be a recognized source of authority—whether that authority is a monarch or a constitution.

Ultimately, the Great Seal—whether of the Realm or of the United States—acts as a visible signature of power. It is not just ink, wax, or design; it is the mark that transforms words on paper into binding acts of a nation.