View this post on Instagram

A post shared by Khalil Ra (@raali2k)

The Mound Builders were groups of Native American cultures—most notably the Adena, Hopewell, and Mississippian societies—who constructed vast numbers of earthen mounds across the Midwest and Southeastern United States from about 3500 BCE until the 1500s CE. These impressive earthworks functioned as burial grounds, ceremonial centers, and foundations for important structures, reflecting sophisticated planning, social organization, and engineering skill.

Major Mound-Building Cultures

Adena Culture (1000 BCE – 1 CE):
Centered mainly in the Ohio Valley, the Adena people are recognized for some of the earliest conical burial mounds and circular ceremonial earthworks often referred to as “sacred circles.”

Hopewell Culture (200 BCE – 500 CE):
Building upon earlier traditions, the Hopewell created expansive geometric earthworks and effigy mounds shaped like animals. A well-known example is Serpent Mound in Ohio, believed to have ceremonial and astronomical significance.

Mississippian Culture (800 CE – 1600 CE):
The Mississippians developed large urban centers featuring massive, flat-topped platform mounds used for temples, elite residences, and public ceremonies. The largest site, Cahokia Mounds in present-day Illinois, stands as one of the most significant pre-Columbian cities north of Mexico and is now recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Purpose and Importance

The mounds served multiple roles. Many were burial sites for important community members, while others elevated temples or leaders’ homes above surrounding settlements. Construction required transporting enormous amounts of soil—often millions of cubic feet—by hand, typically using woven baskets. These sites stretched from the Great Lakes region to the Gulf of Mexico, with especially dense concentrations along the Ohio and Mississippi River valleys.

Historical Misunderstandings

When European settlers first encountered these monumental earthworks, many doubted that Native American societies could have built them. This disbelief led to myths about a mysterious, vanished “race” of mound builders. However, systematic studies in the 19th century, including research conducted by the Smithsonian Institution, demonstrated conclusively that the mounds were constructed by the ancestors of contemporary Native American tribes. Today, these earthworks are recognized as powerful evidence of the rich cultural and technological achievements of Indigenous peoples in North America.

Many Americans are shocked to learn that their country is home to an ancient pyramid that stands as tall as 100 feet. Mysteriously, the fascinating history of Cahokia and its Monks Mound pyramid aren’t covered in most schools. Be that as it may, Cahokia was the largest pre-Colombian urban settlement north of the Rio Grande. And at its peak, it even had a bigger population than London at the time.

Cahokia started developing in the 10th century, and it became the most important settlement to the Mississippian culture from around the year 1050. Over the course of a couple centuries, Cahokia’s population would grow to as large as 40,000 people. And throughout their city, which took up an area of around 6 square miles (16 km2), the Cahokians built hundreds of mounds.

While the Cahokians left behind no written records, we know that the city was a thriving center of trade. It’s located just outside of modern-day St. Louis, while various materials found at the site come from as far as the Gulf Coast and the Great Lakes.

But for some reason, by around the year 1400, the city was mysteriously abandoned. There’s still a lot we don’t know about the ancient metropolis, but the city’s layout reveals a highly advanced knowledge of astronomy and geometry.

Today, despite its relative obscurity, getting to the Cahokia mounds is surprisingly easy. The site is a relatively short drive from St. Louis, while a tour around the mounds shouldn’t take more than half a day.

Who Were the Mississippians?

This mountain in Washington State has an eerie resemblance to the ancient pyramids of Egypt.

Tumtum Mountain is a small volcanic cone located in northern Clark County, Washington, at the edge of a flat region known as Chelatchie Prairie. Its remarkably symmetrical, cone-like shape makes it stand out from the surrounding landscape. The mountain rises to an elevation of 2,004 feet (611 meters), towering approximately 1,400 feet (430 meters above the prairie floor).

Formed by lava flows during the Pleistocene epoch, Tumtum Mountain is part of the Cascade Volcanic Arc. At an estimated age of about 70,000 years, it holds the distinction of being the youngest volcano in Washington’s Cascade Mountains and the westernmost in the range.

Operation Paperclip was a secret United States intelligence program in which more than 1,600 German scientists, engineers, and technicians were taken from former Nazi Germany to the US for government employment after the end of World War II in Europe, between 1945 and 1959; several were confirmed to be former members of the Nazi Party, including the SS or the SA.

The effort began in earnest in 1945, as the Allies advanced into Germany and discovered a wealth of scientific talent and advanced research that had contributed to Germany's wartime technological advancements. The US Joint Chiefs of Staff officially established Operation Overcast (operations "Overcast" and "Paperclip" were related, and the terms are often used interchangeably) on July 20, 1945, with the dual aims of leveraging German expertise for the ongoing war effort against Japan and to bolster US postwar military research. The operation, conducted by the Joint Intelligence Objectives Agency (JIOA), was largely actioned by special agents of the US Army's Counterintelligence Corps (CIC). Many selected scientists were involved in the Nazi rocket program, aviation, or chemical/biological warfare. The Soviet Union in the following year conducted a similar program, called Operation Osoaviakhim, that emphasized many of the same fields of research.

The operation, characterized by the recruitment of German specialists and their families, relocated more than 1600 experts to the US. It has been valued at US$10 billion in patents and industrial processes. Recruits included such notable figures as Wernher von Braun, a leading rocket-technology scientist. Those recruited were instrumental in the development of the US space program and military technology during the Cold War. Despite its contributions to American scientific advances, Operation Paperclip has been controversial because of the Nazi affiliations of many recruits, and the ethics of assimilating individuals associated with war crimes into American society.

The operation was not solely focused on rocketry; efforts were directed toward synthetic fuels, medicine, and other fields of research. Notable advances in aeronautics fostered rocket and space-flight technologies pivotal in the Space Race. The operation played a crucial role in the establishment of NASA and the success of the Apollo missions to the Moon.

Operation Paperclip was part of a broader strategy by the US to harness German scientific talent in the face of emerging Cold War tensions, and ensuring this expertise did not fall into the hands of the Soviet Union or other nations. The operation's legacy has remained controversial in subsequent decades. 

Background and Operation Overcast

The term "Overcast" was the name first given by the German scientists' family members for the housing camp where they were held in Bavaria. In late summer 1945, the JCS established the JIOA, a subcommittee of the Joint Intelligence Community, to directly oversee Operation Overcast and later Operation Paperclip. The JIOA representatives included the army's director of intelligence, the chief of naval intelligence, the assistant chief of Air Staff-2 (air force intelligence), and a representative from the State Department.

 In November 1945, Operation Overcast was renamed Operation Paperclip by Ordnance Corps officers, who would attach a paperclip to the folders of those rocket experts whom they wished to employ in the United States.

The project was not initially targeted against the Soviet Union; rather the concern was that German scientists might emigrate and continue their research in countries that remained neutral during the war.[6] Much US effort was focused on Saxony and Thuringia, which on July 1, 1945, became part of the Soviet occupation zone. Many German research facilities and personnel had been evacuated to these states before the end of the war, particularly from the Berlin area. The USSR then relocated more than 2,200 German specialists and their families—more than 6,000 people—with Operation Osoaviakhim during one night on October 22, 1946.

In a secret directive circulated on September 3, 1946, President Truman officially approved Operation Paperclip and expanded it to include 1,000 German scientists under "temporary, limited military custody". News media revealed the program as early as December 1946.

On April 26, 1946, the Joint Chiefs of Staff issued directive JCS 1067/14 to General Eisenhower instructing that he "preserve from destruction and take under your control records, plans, books, documents, papers, files and scientific, industrial and other information and data belonging to ... German organizations engaged in military research"; : 185  and that, excepting war-criminals, German scientists be detained for intelligence purposes as required.

Operation Fishbowl was a series of high-altitude nuclear tests in 1962 that were carried out by the United States as a part of the larger Operation Dominic nuclear test program.

The Operation Fishbowl nuclear tests were originally to be completed during the first half of 1962 with three tests named Bluegill, Starfish and Urraca.

The first test attempt was delayed until June. Planning for Operation Fishbowl, as well as many other nuclear tests in the region, began rapidly in response to the sudden Soviet announcement on August 30, 1961, that they were ending a three-year moratorium on nuclear testing. The rapid planning of very complex operations necessitated many changes as the project progressed.

All of the tests were to be launched on missiles from Johnston Island in the Pacific Ocean north of the equator. Johnston Island had already been established as a launch site for United States high-altitude nuclear tests, rather than the other locations in the Pacific Proving Grounds. In 1958, Lewis Strauss, then chairman of the United States Atomic Energy Commission, opposed doing any high-altitude tests at locations that had been used for earlier Pacific nuclear tests. 

His opposition was motivated by fears that the flash from the nighttime high-altitude detonations might blind civilians who were living on nearby islands. Johnston Island was a remote location, more distant from populated areas than other potential test locations. To protect residents of the Hawaiian Islands from flash blindness or permanent retinal injury from the bright nuclear flash, the nuclear missiles of Operation Fishbowl were launched generally toward the southwest of Johnston Island so that the detonations would be farther from Hawaii.

Urraca was to be a test of about 1 megaton yield at very high altitude (above 1000 km). The proposed Urraca test was always controversial, especially after the damage caused to satellites by the Starfish Prime detonation, as described below. Urraca was finally canceled, and an extensive re-evaluation of the Operation Fishbowl plan was made during an 82-day operations pause after the Bluegill Prime disaster of July 25, 1962, as described below.

A test named Kingfish was added during the early stages of Operation Fishbowl planning. Two low-yield tests, Checkmate and Tightrope, were also added during the project, so the final number of tests in Operation Fishbowl was five. Tightrope was the last atmospheric nuclear test conducted by the United States, as the Limited Test Ban Treaty came into effect shortly thereafter.

Operation Dominic was a series of 31 nuclear test explosions ("shots") with a 38.1 Mt (159 PJ) total yield conducted in 1962 by the United States in the Pacific. This test series was scheduled quickly, in order to respond in kind to the Soviet resumption of testing after the tacit 1958–1961 test moratorium. Most of these shots were conducted with free fall bombs dropped from B-52 bomber aircraft. Twenty of these shots were to test new weapons designs; six to test weapons effects; and several shots to confirm the reliability of existing weapons. The Thor missile was also used to lift warheads into near-space to conduct high-altitude nuclear explosion tests; these shots were collectively called Operation Fishbowl.

Operation Dominic occurred during a period of high Cold War tension between the United States and the Soviet Union, since the Cuban Bay of Pigs Invasion had occurred not long before. Nikita Khrushchev announced the end of a three-year moratorium on nuclear testing on 30 August 1961, and Soviet tests recommenced on 1 September, initiating a series of tests that included the detonation of the Tsar Bomba. President John F. Kennedy responded by authorizing Operation Dominic. It was the last atmospheric test series conducted by the U.S., as the Limited Test Ban Treaty was signed in Moscow the following year.

The operation was undertaken by Joint Task Force 8.

The U.S. Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) performed Operation DOMINIC II, an atmospheric nuclear test series, at the Nevada Test Site (NTS) from July 7 to 17, 1962. The test series included four low-yield shots, three of which were near-surface detonations and one a tower shot. Exercise IVY FLATS included one of the near-surface shots, fired from a DAVY CROCKETT rocket launcher.

George Washington wrote a letter to Sultan Mohammed Ben Abdallah of Morocco in 1789, expressing the United States' gratitude for his friendship and protection. The letter also mentioned the US's change in government and its new Constitution.

Here's a more detailed breakdown of the letter:

Purpose:

The letter was a formal expression of thanks from the United States for Sultan Mohammed Ben Abdallah's previous friendly actions, particularly his protection of US citizens in their commerce with Morocco.

Gratitude:

Washington acknowledged the Sultan's "important mark of your friendship" and expressed the United States' sincere thanks.

New Government:

The letter also informed the Sultan about the United States' shift to a new government based on the Constitution, with a copy of the Constitution enclosed.

Sustained Friendship:

Washington assured the Sultan that he would continue to promote friendship and harmony between the United States and Morocco, highlighting the importance of the existing treaty of amity and commerce.

Context:

This letter was written shortly after the US established its new government under the Constitution. It also followed a period of diplomatic efforts by the US to secure trade with Morocco and other Barbary States.

 'Turtle Island' is the name for the lands now known as North and Central America. It is a name used by some Indigenous peoples who believe their land was formed on the back of a turtle. Though regional versions exist, the core of this creation story relates to a time when the planet was covered in water.

Indigenous place names carry the stories of the land and its people, reflecting the unbroken relationships between them. From the moment Columbus landed at Guanahaní and christened it “San Salvador,” place names became weapons to claim Indigenous land. The erasure of Indigenous peoples from colonial maps was deliberate. Reclaiming these names is part of a movement to revitalize endangered languages, undo centuries of suppression and widespread misinformation, and acknowledge unextinguished Indigenous land tenure.

This map was a collaborative endeavor involving hundreds of Indigenous elders and language-keepers across the continent to accurately document place names for major cities and historical sites. The process of consultation and research for the map was a 9-year effort. In fact, the Decolonial Atlas was started in 2014 initially just to make this map.

Nearly 300 names are compiled here, representing about 150 languages. Some names are from the precolonial era, while others are not quite as old, and in certain cases where the original name has been lost, Indigenous collaborators reconstructed names based on their cultural relationship with that location. Because Indigenous languages are living and dynamic, none of these names are any less “authentic” than others. Embedded in all these names are ancestral words and worldviews. However, some major cities are missing from the map because, as our collaborator DeLesslin George-Warren (Catawba) pointed out, “The fact is that we’ve lost so much in terms of our language and place names. It might be more honest to recognize that loss in the map instead of giving the false notion that the place name still exists for us.”

The names are written as they were shared with us, but may be spelled differently depending on the orthography. Note that some languages, like Lushootseed, do not use capital letters, while others, like Saanich, are written only in capital letters. Most names are spelled in the modern orthographies of their languages, but some, like the Lenape name for Philadelphia, were spelled as recorded by early settlers because it could not be confidently interpreted.

In the context of Indigenous erasure, the global collapse of traditional ecological knowledge, language suppression and revitalization, our hope is that this map will lead to more accurate cultural representation and recognition of Indigenous sovereignty.

The Adena Culture of the Northeast

From the years of about 1000 B.C. to about 1 A.D. the Adena people were a group of well-organized societies that lived in parts of present-day Ohio, Indiana, Wisconsin, West Virginia, Kentucky, Pennsylvania, Maryland, and New York.

The Adena people were not a single tribe, but rather, a group of indigenous people that shared similarities in artifact style, architecture, and other cultural practices, including a common burial and ceremonial system that included mound building. The Adena were the first group of “mound builders,” a practice that spanned several cultures over a period of about 20 centuries.

Building these mounds was a monumental task as these ancient people didn’t use the wheel and had no horses. Large amounts of earth would have to have been moved by the basket-load to the mound site. Probably, for this reason, the mounds were used more than once. Over the years, more earth was brought in and the mounds were built higher and higher, containing multiple burials at different levels.

Most of the mounds range in size from 20 to 300 feet in diameter. However, the conical-type Grave Creek Mound in Moundsville, West Virginia, is much larger. The largest of Adena’s burial mounds, standing at 62 feet high and is 240 feet in diameter, is thought to have been built over a period of 100 years or more.

According to research, these earthworks not only served for burial purposes, but also as ceremonial sites and as territorial markers. They were built and added on to as part of their burial rituals. Some people were cremated while others were buried intact.

A mortuary structure stood atop or near the mound, where the dead would be kept until their final burial was performed. Within this structure, the remains would lie and grave goods of tools and other necessary items for the afterlife would be placed. After a period of time, the structure would be burned with the goods and honored dead within, and become part of the mound.

For important people, such as clan leaders, healers, and shaman, however, their bodies were buried on the mound with a variety of artifacts such as bone or flint tools, beads, jewelry, pipes and mica, and copper ornaments. These included both men and women of all ages.

Adena Ritual Mounds

Adena Ritual Mounds

In the later Adena period, circular ridges were sometimes constructed around the burial earthworks which are thought to have been ritual spaces.

The name “Adena” originates from the estate of Ohio Governor Thomas Worthington, which was located about a mile and a half northwest of Chillicothe, Ohio. His estate, which he called Adena, included a 26-foot tall ancient burial mound, from which the culture and the mound took the name.

The Adena people were hunter-gatherers, but also grew various crops, including squash, sunflower, pumpkin, goosefoot, and tobacco. They lived in extended family groups of roughly 15 to 20 people, with several extended families forming a lineage or clan. Between four to six of these clans made up an Adena social group.

Their houses were circular with conical-shaped roofs, made of wood, bark, and wickerwork that were from 15 to 45 feet in diameter. Just a few of these dwellings formed a small village.

However, they were known to have traveled widely for hunting, gathering, and trading needs. They supplemented their gardens with gathering native plants, seeds, grasses, nuts, and berries, hunted game, and fished. Their wide trading network provided them with copper from the Great Lakes and shells from the Gulf Coast.

Adena Stone Tablet

The Adena people were the first to produce clay pottery in the region, which was characterized by large, thick-walled vessels used for cooking, and other flatforms to grind seeds. They also made tools, including hoes, axes, and projectiles from stones, bones, and antlers. They also made use of plant fibers and sinew to make twine, cord, and yarn, which they turned into bags, shoes, and clothing. They used herbal medicines to treat ailments.

Beads, combs, and ornamental objects were also made from bone and antler, and spoons, beads and other implements were made from the conch shells. A few copper axes have been found, but the copper was usually used for ornamental forms and jewelry.

They were also renowned for their artistry. They created numerous pieces with art motifs, such as the weeping eye, cross, and circle designs, that became mainstays to many later Native Americans tribes. Many of their designs revolved around the transformation of humans into animals, such as birds, wolves, bears and deer, and then back to human form. Antlers, animal jawbones, copper, beads, and jewelry were used in costumes and other forms of regalia. They carved small stone tablets which bore animal pictures and geometric designs, that may have been used to stamp designs on cloth or animal hides, or onto their own bodies.

In about 500 B.C., the Adena culture began slowly to give way to a more sophisticated culture, the Hopewell Culture. These people were also mound builders, whose primary period was between 1 A.D. to 700 A.D. The Hopewell people began to build larger earthworks and to expand their efforts to acquire exotic raw materials, such as mica and more copper. Other cultures extended Mound Builders to about 1300 A.D.

At one time the Adena mound sites numbered up to 200, but only a small number of them remain today. Some of these include the Criel and Grave Creek Mounds in West Virginia, and the Adena, Biggs, Enon, Miamisburg, and Wolf Plains Mounds in Ohio.

Years later, when some of these burial mounds were excavated, there were a number of very tall skeletons that were found, which led to numerous tales of “Giants in America.”

Drones Search for the Nuclear Fusion:

Note: God's destruction of the Tower of Babel According to the Book of Genesis, God destroyed the Tower of Babel because the people building it were becoming too powerful. God made the people speak different languages so they would have trouble communicating with each other.

NASA's Parker Solar Probe will make history during a flight around the Sun on Christmas Eve December 24, 2024. What is the reason behind all of this? Operation Dominic and Operation Fish Bone. They want to go beyond space and break the earth firmament.

Allegory Note: United State Secrets Government group, and Aliens member of Azazel are working together for ground zero super power of earth destruction in the location of Alaska underground black whole pyramids.

The Sun is a main-sequence star, and thus releases its energy by nuclear fusion of hydrogen nuclei into helium. In its core, the Sun fuses about 600 billion kilograms of hydrogen each second.

Nuclear fusion is a reaction in which two or more atomic nuclei (for example, nuclei of hydrogen isotopes deuterium and tritium), combine to form one or more atomic nuclei and neutrons. The difference in mass between the reactants and products is manifested as either the release or absorption of energy. This difference in mass arises as a result of the difference in nuclear binding energy between the atomic nuclei before and after the fusion reaction. Nuclear fusion is the process that powers active or main-sequence stars and other high-magnitude stars, where large amounts of energy are released.

A nuclear fusion process that produces atomic nuclei lighter than iron-56 or nickel-62 will generally release energy. These elements have a relatively small mass and a relatively large binding energy per nucleon. Fusion of nuclei lighter than these releases energy (an exothermic process), while the fusion of heavier nuclei results in energy retained by the product nucleons, and the resulting reaction is endothermic. The opposite is true for the reverse process, called nuclear fission. Nuclear fusion uses lighter elements, such as hydrogen and helium, which are in general more fusible; while the heavier elements, such as uranium, thorium and plutonium, are more fissionable. The extreme astrophysical event of a supernova can produce enough energy to fuse nuclei into elements heavier than iron.

American chemist William Draper Harkins was the first to propose the concept of nuclear fusion in 1915. Then in 1921, Arthur Eddington suggested hydrogen–helium fusion could be the primary source of stellar energy. Quantum tunneling was discovered by Friedrich Hund in 1927, and shortly afterwards Robert Atkinson and Fritz Houtermans used the measured masses of light elements to demonstrate that large amounts of energy could be released by fusing small nuclei. Building on the early experiments in artificial nuclear transmutation by Patrick Blackett, laboratory fusion of hydrogen isotopes was accomplished by Mark Oliphant in 1932. In the remainder of that decade, the theory of the main cycle of nuclear fusion in stars was worked out by Hans Bethe.

Research into fusion for military purposes began in the early 1940s as part of the Manhattan Project. The first artificial thermonuclear fusion reaction occurred during the 1951 Greenhouse Item test of the first boosted fission weapon, which uses a small amount of deuterium–tritium gas to enhance the fission yield. The first thermonuclear weapon detonation, where the vast majority of the yield comes from fusion, was the 1952 Ivy Mike test of a liquid deuterium-fusing device.

While fusion bomb detonations were loosely considered for energy production, the possibility of controlled and sustained reactions remained the scientific focus for peaceful fusion power. Research into developing controlled fusion inside fusion reactors has been ongoing since the 1930s, with Los Alamos National Laboratory's Scylla I device producing the first laboratory thermonuclear fusion in 1958, but the technology is still in its developmental phase.

The US National Ignition Facility, which uses laser-driven inertial confinement fusion, was designed with a goal of achieving a fusion energy gain factor (Q) of larger than one; the first large-scale laser target experiments were performed in June 2009 and ignition experiments began in early 2011. On 13 December 2022, the United States Department of Energy announced that on 5 December 2022, they had successfully accomplished break-even fusion, "delivering 2.05 megajoules (MJ) of energy to the target, resulting in 3.15 MJ of fusion energy output."

Prior to this breakthrough, controlled fusion reactions had been unable to produce break-even (self-sustaining) controlled fusion. The two most advanced approaches for it are magnetic confinement (toroid designs) and inertial confinement (laser designs). Workable designs for a toroidal reactor that theoretically will deliver ten times more fusion energy than the amount needed to heat plasma to the required temperatures are in development (see ITER). The ITER facility is expected to finish its construction phase in 2025. It will start commissioning the reactor that same year and initiate plasma experiments in 2025, but is not expected to begin full deuterium–tritium fusion until 2035.

Private companies pursuing the commercialization of nuclear fusion received $2.6 billion in private funding in 2021 alone, going to many notable startups including but not limited to Commonwealth Fusion Systems, Helion Energy Inc., General Fusion, TAE Technologies Inc. and Zap Energy Inc.

One of the most recent breakthroughs to date in maintaining a sustained fusion reaction occurred in France's WEST fusion reactor. It maintained a 90 million degree plasma for a record time of six minutes. This is a tokamak style reactor which is the same style as the upcoming ITER reactor.

The Process:

The release of energy with the fusion of light elements is due to the interplay of two opposing forces: the nuclear force, a manifestation of the strong interaction, which holds protons and neutrons tightly together in the atomic nucleus; and the Coulomb force, which causes positively charged protons in the nucleus to repel each other. Lighter nuclei (nuclei smaller than iron and nickel) are sufficiently small and proton-poor to allow the nuclear force to overcome the Coulomb force. This is because the nucleus is sufficiently small that all nucleons feel the short-range attractive force at least as strongly as they feel the infinite-range Coulomb repulsion. Building up nuclei from lighter nuclei by fusion releases the extra energy from the net attraction of particles. For larger nuclei, however, no energy is released, because the nuclear force is short-range and cannot act across larger nuclei.

Fusion powers stars and produces virtually all elements in a process called nucleosynthesis. The Sun is a main-sequence star, and, as such, generates its energy by nuclear fusion of hydrogen nuclei into helium. In its core, the Sun fuses 620 million metric tons of hydrogen and makes 616 million metric tons of helium each second. The fusion of lighter elements in stars releases energy and the mass that always accompanies it. For example, in the fusion of two hydrogen nuclei to form helium, 0.645% of the mass is carried away in the form of kinetic energy of an alpha particle or other forms of energy, such as electromagnetic radiation.

It takes considerable energy to force nuclei to fuse, even those of the lightest element, hydrogen. When accelerated to high enough speeds, nuclei can overcome this electrostatic repulsion and be brought close enough such that the attractive nuclear force is greater than the repulsive Coulomb force. The strong force grows rapidly once the nuclei are close enough, and the fusing nucleons can essentially "fall" into each other and the result is fusion; this is an exothermic process.

Energy released in most nuclear reactions is much larger than in chemical reactions, because the binding energy that holds a nucleus together is greater than the energy that holds electrons to a nucleus. For example, the ionization energy gained by adding an electron to a hydrogen nucleus is 13.6 eV—less than one-millionth of the 17.6 MeV released in the deuterium–tritium (D–T) reaction shown in the adjacent diagram. Fusion reactions have an energy density many times greater than nuclear fission; the reactions produce far greater energy per unit of mass even though individual fission reactions are generally much more energetic than individual fusion ones, which are themselves millions of times more energetic than chemical reactions. Via the mass–energy equivalence, fusion yields a 0.7% efficiency of reactant mass into energy. This can be only be exceeded by the extreme cases of the accretion process involving neutron stars or black holes, approaching 40% efficiency, and antimatter annihilation at 100% efficiency. (The complete conversion of one gram of matter would release 9×10 joules of energy.)

The Sun:

An important fusion process is the stellar nucleosynthesis that powers stars, including the Sun. In the 20th century, it was recognized that the energy released from nuclear fusion reactions accounts for the longevity of stellar heat and light. The fusion of nuclei in a star, starting from its initial hydrogen and helium abundance, provides that energy and synthesizes new nuclei. Different reaction chains are involved, depending on the mass of the star (and therefore the pressure and temperature in its core).

Around 1920, Arthur Eddington anticipated the discovery and mechanism of nuclear fusion processes in stars, in his paper The Internal Constitution of the Stars. At that time, the source of stellar energy was unknown; Eddington correctly speculated that the source was fusion of hydrogen into helium, liberating enormous energy according to Einstein's equation E = mc2. This was a particularly remarkable development since at that time fusion and thermonuclear energy had not yet been discovered, nor even that stars are largely composed of hydrogen (see metallicity). Eddington's paper reasoned that:

The leading theory of stellar energy, the contraction hypothesis, should cause the rotation of a star to visibly speed up due to conservation of angular momentum. But observations of Cepheid variable stars showed this was not happening.

The only other known plausible source of energy was conversion of matter to energy; Einstein had shown some years earlier that a small amount of matter was equivalent to a large amount of energy.

Francis Aston had also recently shown that the mass of a helium atom was about 0.8% less than the mass of the four hydrogen atoms which would, combined, form a helium atom (according to the then-prevailing theory of atomic structure which held atomic weight to be the distinguishing property between elements; work by Henry Moseley and Antonius van den Broek would later show that nucleic charge was the distinguishing property and that a helium nucleus, therefore, consisted of two hydrogen nuclei plus additional mass). This suggested that if such a combination could happen, it would release considerable energy as a byproduct.

If a star contained just 5% of fusible hydrogen, it would suffice to explain how stars got their energy. (It is now known that most 'ordinary' stars are usually made of around 70% to 75% hydrogen)

Further elements might also be fused, and other scientists had speculated that stars were the "crucible" in which light elements combined to create heavy elements, but without more accurate measurements of their atomic masses nothing more could be said at the time.

All of these speculations were proven correct in the following decades.

The primary source of solar energy, and that of similar size stars, is the fusion of hydrogen to form helium (the proton–proton chain reaction), which occurs at a solar-core temperature of 14 million kelvin. The net result is the fusion of four protons into one alpha particle, with the release of two positrons and two neutrinos (which changes two of the protons into neutrons), and energy. In heavier stars, the CNO cycle and other processes are more important. As a star uses up a substantial fraction of its hydrogen, it begins to synthesize heavier elements. The heaviest elements are synthesized by fusion that occurs when a more massive star undergoes a violent supernova at the end of its life, a process known as supernova nucleosynthesis.

What is the reason behind all of this? Operation Dominic and Operation Fish Bone. They want to go beyond space and break the earth firmament. They are trying to become God.