The 1733 slave insurrection on St. John (Danish: Slaveoprøret på Sankt Jan), also called the Slave Uprising of 1733, began on November 23, 1733, on the island of Sankt Jan in the Danish West Indies (now St. John, U.S. Virgin Islands). About 150 enslaved Africans, many from the Akwamu people of present-day Ghana, rose up against plantation owners and overseers.

Led in part by Breffu, an enslaved woman from Ghana, the rebellion lasted for months—continuing into August 1734—making it one of the earliest and longest sustained slave revolts in the Americas. The insurgents seized the fort at Coral Bay and gained control over most of the island. Rather than destroying plantations, they aimed to take over the estates and continue crop production under their own authority.

By late May 1734, planters regained control after the rebels were defeated by several hundred French and Swiss troops sent from Martinique in April. After the main fighting ended, local militia forces continued hunting down rebels who had fled into the hills as maroons. Officials declared the uprising fully suppressed in late August 1734.

Background

The Danish slave system on St. John

Denmark claimed St. John in 1718 to develop plantations producing sugar, indigo, and cotton. Labor shortages among European settlers made enslaved African labor central to the economy. By mid-1733, the island held more than 1,000 enslaved Africans, far outnumbering the European population. Many plantations were owned by absentee landlords living on St. Thomas, leaving overseers in charge—conditions that often intensified cruelty.

The Akwamu and forced migration

Denmark’s slave trade expanded along the West African coast near Accra, where the Akwamu had once been a dominant regional power. After political upheaval and defeat in the early 1700s, many Akwamu captives were sold into slavery and transported to plantations in the Danish West Indies, including St. John.

Drought, marooning, and harsh laws

In 1733, environmental hardship—drought, storms, and crop failure—pushed many enslaved people to flee plantations and form maroon communities in the island’s interior. Colonial authorities responded with the Slave Code of 1733, imposing severe punishments meant to prevent escape and rebellion.

The Revolt

November 23, 1733: The outbreak

The uprising began at plantations in the Coral Bay region. Rebels gained entry to the fort under routine pretenses, concealed weapons, and killed most of the soldiers stationed there. Cannon shots from the fort signaled the wider revolt, and rebels quickly expanded control across nearby estates. They moved across the island, targeting settlements while largely avoiding the widespread destruction of property—consistent with their plan to rule and maintain production.

Resistance and flight

Some planters and loyal enslaved people resisted at certain estates, allowing groups of Europeans to escape by boat to St. Thomas. As the rebellion spread, many survivors fled the island.

Suppression and Aftermath

Danish officials requested military assistance from French authorities in Martinique. French ships arrived on April 23, 1734, bringing several hundred troops whose superior arms and numbers broke rebel control. By May 27, plantation rule had been restored. The final phase was a prolonged manhunt for remaining maroons, ending with the capture of the last holdouts and an official declaration on August 25, 1734, that the rebellion was over.

The uprising caused significant loss of life and disrupted the plantation economy. In its wake, some landowners relocated to St. Croix, newly acquired by Denmark in 1733, accelerating development there.

“Freedom” in the century that followed

In the years after the revolt, some individuals gained freedom through exceptional circumstances. One notable example was Franz Claasen, described as a “loyal slave,” who received a land deed in 1738, becoming the first recorded “Free Colored” landowner on St. John.

Denmark-Norway ended the transatlantic slave trade to its Caribbean colonies on January 1, 1803, but slavery continued. Enslaved people sometimes escaped to nearby British islands such as Tortola, where British authorities offered refuge. Pressure for abolition grew through petitions and resistance.

On July 3, 1848, enslaved Afro-Caribbeans on St. Croix staged a mass, nonviolent demonstration demanding freedom. Governor-General Peter von Scholten declared emancipation across the Danish West Indies—114 years after the St. John insurrection.

In modern times, remembrance efforts continue. For example, the Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2023 directed the placement of a commemorative plaque at Ram Head Peak, recognizing the history and legacy of the rebellion.

4 I looked, and I saw a windstorm coming out of the north—an immense cloud with flashing lightning and surrounded by brilliant light. The center of the fire looked like glowing metal, 5 and in the fire was what looked like four living creatures. In appearance their form was human, 6 but each of them had four faces and four wings. 7 Their legs were straight; their feet were like those of a calf and gleamed like burnished bronze. 8 Under their wings on their four sides they had human hands. All four of them had faces and wings, 9 and the wings of one touched the wings of another. Each one went straight ahead; they did not turn as they moved.  

10 Their faces looked like this: Each of the four had the face of a human being, and on the right side each had the face of a lion, and on the left the face of an ox; each also had the face of an eagle. 11 Such were their faces. They each had two wings spreading out upward, each wing touching that of the creature on either side; and each had two other wings covering its body. 12 Each one went straight ahead. Wherever the spirit would go, they would go, without turning as they went. 13 The appearance of the living creatures was like burning coals of fire or like torches. Fire moved back and forth among the creatures; it was bright, and lightning flashed out of it. 14 The creatures sped back and forth like flashes of lightning.

In this searing Shahid Bolsen monologue, “Victim” exposes the moral and intellectual decay of the West — a civilization suffering from centuries of ideological inbreeding and spiritual malnourishment.

Authorities in Mississippi are investigating two separate incidents involving Black men found hanging within 24 hours, raising alarm and prompting calls for transparency as communities grapple with shock and grief.

On Monday, Delta State University police confirmed that 21-year-old student Demartravion “Trey” Reed was found dead on campus in Cleveland, Mississippi. University Police Chief Michael L. Peeler said during a press conference that Reed’s body was discovered hanging from a tree near the pickleball courts at approximately 7:05 a.m.

“At this time, there is no evidence of foul play,” Peeler said. “The body has been retrieved by the Bolivar County Coroner’s office. I have requested the assistance of the Mississippi Bureau of Investigation, the Bolivar County Sheriff’s office, and the Cleveland Police Department to assist us in this ongoing investigation.”

Although the Bolivar County Coroner has not confirmed the cause of death, authorities are treating the incident as a suicide. Delta State President Dan Ennis addressed the campus community following the discovery, noting that the campus would not go into lockdown due to there being no present threat.

“I want to reiterate Chief Peeler’s comment, Ennis said. “There is no evidence of a threat to campus, and there is no evidence the campus is unsafe at this point.”

The tragedy occurred as the university’s roughly 2,700 students were preparing to celebrate its centennial. All ceremonies, including opening ceremonies and the unveiling of a time capsule, were canceled, and classes were suspended on Monday as students, faculty, and staff were encouraged to visit counseling resources to cope with the traumatic incident.

“Our community is deeply saddened by their loss,” Delta State said in a statement. “We extend our heartfelt condolences to the family and friends impacted.”

Ennis noted that university leadership would meet to determine whether classes and events would resume later in the week.

Just hours after Reed’s death, another tragic discovery was made across the state. Around 1:30 p.m. on Monday, the Vicksburg Police Department responded to a call about a body found hanging in a wooded area off the 4100 block of Washington Street, near the Ameristar Casino.

The victim has been identified as Cory Zukatis, a resident of Brandon, Mississippi. Police said the investigation remains ongoing, and as of press time, no further details have been released regarding the circumstances surrounding Zukatis’s death.

Although police have assured the public that the two incidents are not connected, the proximity in timing between Reed’s death in Cleveland and Zukatis’s in Vicksburg has drawn heightened attention—especially after Black colleges received bomb threats following the death of controversial podcaster, Charlie Kirk.

Officials in both cases have said that foul play is not suspected, but the fact that two men were found hanging in separate Mississippi cities on the same day has left communities shaken and has highlighted the importance of mental health awareness, community support, and open communication during moments of collective grief.

 A Campus in Shock as Authorities Investigate Tragic Death

This morning (September 15), the Delta State University community in Cleveland, Mississippi, was devastated by the discovery of 21-year-old Demartravion “Trey” Reedhanging from a tree on campus. The body was found around 7:05 a.m. near the pickleball courts, a highly visible area in the center of campus.

Staff immediately called emergency services, and Reed was pronounced dead at the scene. His death occurred during Delta State’s centennial celebrations, prompting the university to cancel classes and events for the day. What should have been a week of joy and commemoration for the institution quickly turned into mourning and uncertainty.

Authorities—including the Mississippi Bureau of Investigation, Bolivar County Sheriff’s Department, Cleveland Police, and Delta State University Police—launched a joint investigation. At this stage, officials stated that no evidence of foul play had been found. However, they stressed that the matter was under active review and an autopsy was pending.

University’s Response and Support for Students

Delta State University President Daniel Ennis issued a public statement acknowledging Reed’s death and offering condolences to his family. He emphasized the availability of counseling services for students, staff, and faculty.

“The loss of Trey Reed is devastating to all of us,” Ennis said. “We extend our deepest sympathy to his loved ones and are committed to supporting our students, faculty, and staff during this difficult time.”

Classes were suspended, centennial celebrations were paused, and the normally busy campus fell silent. This was because students gathered for impromptu vigils and shared messages of support online.

A Painful Historical Echo in Mississippi

Investigators have not confirmed foul play. However, the nature of Reed’s death has ignited public skepticism and raised painful reminders of Mississippi’s violent racial history.

The Equal Justice Initiative has documented more than 650 lynchings of Black people in Mississippi between 1877 and 1950. That’s the highest total of any state during that period. For many, the image of a young Black man found hanging from a tree in 2025 cannot be separated from that historical context.

Persecution In America:

Nat Turner (October 2, 1800 – November 11, 1831) was an enslaved Black carpenter and preacher who led a four-day rebellion of both enslaved and free Black people in Southampton County, Virginia in August 1831.

Nat Turner's Rebellion resulted in the death of 55 White men, women, and children before state militias suppressed the uprising, while 120 Black men, women, and children, many of whom were not involved in the revolt, were killed by soldiers and local mobs in retaliation. Turner was captured in October 1831 and executed after a trial in November. Before his execution, he told his story to attorney Thomas Ruffin Grey, who published The Confessions of Nat Turner in November 1831.

In 2002, scholar Molefi Kete Asante included Nat Turner on his list of 100 Greatest African Americans. Turner has been depicted in films, literature, and plays, as well as many scholarly works.

Turner was born into slavery on October 2, 1800, in Southampton County, Virginia. Southampton County was a rural plantation area with more Black people than White. Benjamin Turner, the man who held Nat and his family as slaves, called the infant Nat in his records. Even when grown, the slave was known simply as Nat; but after the 1831 rebellion, he was widely referred to as Nat Turner.

Turner knew little about the background of his father, who was believed to have escaped from slavery when Turner was a child.  However, Turner grew up "much attached to his grandmother".

Turner learned how to read and write at a young age. He was identified as having "natural intelligence and quickness of apprehension, surpassed by few". He grew up deeply religious and was often seen fasting, praying, or immersed in reading the stories of the Bible.

Benjamin Turner died in 1810, and his son Samuel inherited Nat. When he was 21, Nat Turner escaped from Samuel Turner; but he returned a month later, after becoming delirious from hunger and receiving a vision that told him to "return to the service of my earthly master". In 1830, Joseph Travis purchased Turner; Turner later recalled that Travis was "a kind master" who "placed the greatest confidence" in him.

An 1831 reward notice described Turner as:

5 feet 6 or 8 inches [168–173 cm] high, weighs between 150 and 160 pounds [68–73 kg], rather "bright" [light-colored] complexion, but not a mulatto, broad shoulders, larger flat nose, large eyes, broad flat feet, rather knockneed [sic], walks brisk and active, hair on the top of the head very thin, no beard, except on the upper lip and the top of the chin, a scar on one of his temples, also one on the back of his neck, a large knot on one of the bones of his right arm, near the wrist, produced by a blow.

Turner was deeply religious and was often seen fasting, praying, or immersed in reading the stories of the Bible. He had visions that he interpreted as messages from God, and which influenced his life. The historian Patrick Breen stated, "Nat Turner thought that God used the natural world as a backdrop in front of which he placed signs and omens." Breen further states that Nat Turner claimed he possessed a gift of prophecy and that he could interpret these divine revelations.

Turner often conducted religious services, preaching the Bible to his fellow slaves, who dubbed him "The Prophet". In addition to Blacks, Turner garnered some White followers such as Ethelred T. Brantley, whom Turner baptized after convincing him to "cease from his wickedness".

When he was 21, Nat Turner escaped but returned a month later, after receiving a vision that told him to "return to the service of my earthly master". In 1824, Turner had a second vision while working in the fields for Thomas Moore: "The Saviour was about to lay down the yoke he had borne for the sins of men, and the great day of judgment was at hand".

Historian David Allmendinger notes that Turner had ten different supernatural experiences between 1822 and 1828. These included appearances of both the Spirit communicating through a religious language and scripture along with the visions of the Holy Ghost. By the spring of 1828, Turner was convinced that he "was ordained for some great purpose in the hands of the Almighty".

Turner said he "heard a loud noise in the heavens" while working in Moore's fields on May 12th "and the Spirit instantly appeared to me and said the Serpent was loosened, and Christ had laid down the yoke he had borne for the sins of men, and that I should take it on and fight against the Serpent, for the time was fast approaching when the first should be last and the last should be first". Historian and theologian Joseph Dreis says, "In connecting this vision to the motivation for his rebellion, Turner makes it clear that he sees himself as participating in the confrontation between God's Kingdom and the anti-Kingdom that characterized his social-historical context."

During the 1820s, Turner was motivated by strong convictions, at least partly inspired by his religious beliefs, to organize his fellow slaves against enslavement. His deep spiritual commitment served as a significant influence on slaves within the surrounding plantations in Virginia. After Turner viewed the solar eclipse in 1831, he was certain that God wanted the revolt to commence.