The secret war in Cambodia refers to covert U.S. bombing campaigns and military actions approved by President Richard Nixon and directed by National Security Advisor Henry Kissinger beginning in March 1969. Although Cambodia was officially neutral, it became a target because North Vietnamese forces used areas inside its borders—particularly routes connected to the Ho Chi Minh Trail—as supply lines and safe havens for troops fighting in South Vietnam. To prevent backlash and legal scrutiny over widening the already unpopular Vietnam War, the operations were concealed from both Congress and the American public.

Key Elements of the Campaign 

• Operation Menu (1969–1970): Launched March 18, 1969, starting with “Operation Breakfast,” this phase involved B-52 carpet-bombing of suspected communist bases in eastern Cambodia. Additional phases followed, labeled Lunch, Dinner, Snack, Supper, and Dessert.
• Secrecy Measures: The administration used complex reporting procedures, falsified records, and limited disclosure—even within parts of the military—to keep the campaign hidden.
• Cambodian Incursion (1970): After Prince Sihanouk was overthrown and Lon Nol took power, Nixon approved a joint U.S.–South Vietnamese ground invasion on April 28–29, 1970, aimed at destroying communist supply networks.
• Operation Freedom Deal (1970–1973): Following troop withdrawal, bombing expanded deeper into Cambodia to support the Lon Nol government against Khmer Rouge forces.

Impact and Consequences 

• Destabilization and Khmer Rouge Rise: The bombings caused widespread destruction and civilian casualties. The resulting instability helped the Khmer Rouge gain strength, ultimately leading to their rule from 1975 to 1979, during which up to two million people died.
• Domestic Protest in the U.S.: News of the 1970 incursion triggered large anti-war demonstrations, including protests that culminated in the Kent State shootings on May 4, 1970.
• Scale of Bombing: Declassified data released in 2000 revealed that more than 2.7 million tons of bombs were dropped on Cambodia—far higher than earlier estimates.
• War Powers Act (1973): The secrecy and expansion of the conflict without congressional approval contributed to a constitutional debate, eventually leading to legislation intended to restrict presidential authority to commit U.S. forces without Congress. 

Pyramid Mound, designated 12K14, is a significant archaeological location in the city of Vincennes, Indiana. Situated on the edge of the city, this prominent loess hill shows evidence of prehistoric activity and remains a recognizable landmark for modern residents.

Archaeological Work

A survey conducted by the Illinois State Museum in the early 1960s indicated that the region around Vincennes was once inhabited by a Mississippian group referred to as the Vincennes culture.

Drawing on findings from an 1874 Smithsonian survey, an amateur antiquarian writing in the 1890s speculated about the mound’s connection to larger archaeological complexes in the eastern and central United States. He suggested that Pyramid Mound might be related to the geometric earthworks built by the Hopewell culture in Ohio. He also proposed that Pyramid Mound and other nearby features marked the northeastern boundary of a confederacy centered at the Mississippian city of Cahokia near present-day St. Louis, Missouri. However, this interpretation did not account for the substantial cultural differences between these distinct “Mound Builder” groups.

Local histories published in 1886 and 1911 further interpreted Pyramid Mound and nearby flat-topped formations as prehistoric religious sites, comparing them to the pyramids of the Aztecs in Mexico City.

Later professional archaeological investigations in the late twentieth century challenged these earlier ideas. Studies published in the 1970s and again in 1998 concluded that Pyramid Mound and similar features are actually natural loess hills that Woodland-period Native peoples selected as burial areas. Supporting this conclusion is the consistency of these hills in size, soil composition, and placement along the eastern edge of the Wabash River valley. Their shapes also align with prevailing wind patterns. As a result, although these formations resemble artificial burial mounds and are commonly referred to as “mounds,” they are now understood to be naturally formed hills rather than constructed earthworks.

The Gullah (pronounced Guh-luh) are a distinct group of Black Americans who primarily live in the Lowcountry regions of North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida, especially along the Sea Islands. Their culture and language have preserved strong African influences due to long periods of geographic and social isolation.

Historically, the Gullah region stretched from coastal North Carolina down to northeastern Florida. They are also known as Geechee, a name possibly derived from the Ogeechee River in Georgia. Some communities identify as “Freshwater Geechee” or “Saltwater Geechee,” depending on whether they live inland or on the islands.

The Gullah people developed a unique creole culture rooted in Central and West African traditions. Their language, an English-based creole, incorporates African vocabulary and grammatical patterns. Cultural practices such as basket weaving, rice farming, fishing, storytelling, music, and cuisine all reflect strong African heritage.

The origins of the name “Gullah” are debated. Some scholars connect it to the Kikongo language or to Angola, where many enslaved Africans brought to the region originated. Others link it to West African ethnic groups such as the Gola or Kissi peoples.

The Gullah people emerged during the era of slavery in the coastal South, where enslaved Africans from rice-growing regions of West Africa were brought for their agricultural expertise. Because they lived in relatively isolated plantation areas, they were able to retain many of their ancestral traditions, forming a distinct cultural identity that continues today.

In modern times, the Gullah have worked to preserve their land, language, and traditions despite pressures from development and cultural change. Their heritage is now recognized as a vital part of American history, with efforts in place to protect and celebrate their unique cultural legacy.

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The Mound Builders were groups of Native American cultures—most notably the Adena, Hopewell, and Mississippian societies—who constructed vast numbers of earthen mounds across the Midwest and Southeastern United States from about 3500 BCE until the 1500s CE. These impressive earthworks functioned as burial grounds, ceremonial centers, and foundations for important structures, reflecting sophisticated planning, social organization, and engineering skill.

Major Mound-Building Cultures

Adena Culture (1000 BCE – 1 CE):
Centered mainly in the Ohio Valley, the Adena people are recognized for some of the earliest conical burial mounds and circular ceremonial earthworks often referred to as “sacred circles.”

Hopewell Culture (200 BCE – 500 CE):
Building upon earlier traditions, the Hopewell created expansive geometric earthworks and effigy mounds shaped like animals. A well-known example is Serpent Mound in Ohio, believed to have ceremonial and astronomical significance.

Mississippian Culture (800 CE – 1600 CE):
The Mississippians developed large urban centers featuring massive, flat-topped platform mounds used for temples, elite residences, and public ceremonies. The largest site, Cahokia Mounds in present-day Illinois, stands as one of the most significant pre-Columbian cities north of Mexico and is now recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Purpose and Importance

The mounds served multiple roles. Many were burial sites for important community members, while others elevated temples or leaders’ homes above surrounding settlements. Construction required transporting enormous amounts of soil—often millions of cubic feet—by hand, typically using woven baskets. These sites stretched from the Great Lakes region to the Gulf of Mexico, with especially dense concentrations along the Ohio and Mississippi River valleys.

Historical Misunderstandings

When European settlers first encountered these monumental earthworks, many doubted that Native American societies could have built them. This disbelief led to myths about a mysterious, vanished “race” of mound builders. However, systematic studies in the 19th century, including research conducted by the Smithsonian Institution, demonstrated conclusively that the mounds were constructed by the ancestors of contemporary Native American tribes. Today, these earthworks are recognized as powerful evidence of the rich cultural and technological achievements of Indigenous peoples in North America.

Many Americans are shocked to learn that their country is home to an ancient pyramid that stands as tall as 100 feet. Mysteriously, the fascinating history of Cahokia and its Monks Mound pyramid aren’t covered in most schools. Be that as it may, Cahokia was the largest pre-Colombian urban settlement north of the Rio Grande. And at its peak, it even had a bigger population than London at the time.

Cahokia started developing in the 10th century, and it became the most important settlement to the Mississippian culture from around the year 1050. Over the course of a couple centuries, Cahokia’s population would grow to as large as 40,000 people. And throughout their city, which took up an area of around 6 square miles (16 km2), the Cahokians built hundreds of mounds.

While the Cahokians left behind no written records, we know that the city was a thriving center of trade. It’s located just outside of modern-day St. Louis, while various materials found at the site come from as far as the Gulf Coast and the Great Lakes.

But for some reason, by around the year 1400, the city was mysteriously abandoned. There’s still a lot we don’t know about the ancient metropolis, but the city’s layout reveals a highly advanced knowledge of astronomy and geometry.

Today, despite its relative obscurity, getting to the Cahokia mounds is surprisingly easy. The site is a relatively short drive from St. Louis, while a tour around the mounds shouldn’t take more than half a day.

Who Were the Mississippians?