The Ten Lost Tribes refer to ten of the original Twelve Tribes of Israel that were said to have been exiled after the Kingdom of Israel was conquered by the Neo-Assyrian Empire around 720 BCE. The tribes traditionally identified as “lost” are Reuben, Simeon, Dan, Naphtali, Gad, Asher, Issachar, Zebulun, Manasseh, and Ephraim. Only Judah and Benjamin, centered in the southern Kingdom of Judah, remained intact until the Babylonian destruction of Jerusalem in 587 BCE. Members of the Tribe of Levi were dispersed among both kingdoms in designated cities rather than assigned territorial land.
The exile of the northern kingdom’s population—often called the Assyrian captivity—was part of the Assyrian imperial policy of deporting and resettling conquered peoples. Ancient historian Josephus later claimed that the ten tribes were still living beyond the Euphrates in his own day, forming a vast population.
Biblical Background
The principal scriptural reference appears in 2 Kings 17:6, which describes the Assyrian king deporting the Israelites from Samaria to regions of Assyria and Media.
According to biblical tradition, the united monarchy of Israel split around 930 BCE. The northern tribes rejected Rehoboam, son of Solomon, and formed the Kingdom of Israel. The southern tribes of Judah and Benjamin remained loyal to him, forming the Kingdom of Judah.
In the eighth century BCE, Assyrian campaigns gradually dismantled the northern kingdom. Tiglath-Pileser III annexed large portions of territory and deported inhabitants from regions such as Gilead and Galilee. Later, Shalmaneser V and Sargon II completed the conquest of Samaria.
Modern historians note that deportations certainly occurred, but they may not have involved the entire population. Archaeological and demographic research suggests that many Israelites remained in the land. Some migrated south into Judah, and others became part of what later developed into the Samaritan community.
Apocryphal and Later Jewish Traditions
Later Jewish and apocalyptic texts expanded the story of the tribes’ disappearance. In 2 Esdras (4 Ezra), the tribes are said to have journeyed to a distant land called Arzareth, beyond the Euphrates, where they would remain until the end times. Similarly, 2 Baruch speaks of communication with the “nine and a half tribes” living beyond the river.
In rabbinic literature, debate arose over whether the ten tribes would ever return. Some authorities, such as Rabbi Akiva, suggested they would not; others maintained that eventual restoration remained possible.
Medieval Jewish legends described the tribes as living beyond the mythical Sambation River, cut off from the rest of the Jewish world.
Christian Interpretations
Christian traditions often linked the return of the lost tribes with messianic expectations. From the early modern period onward, speculation about their whereabouts intensified. In the seventeenth century, Menasseh ben Israel published The Hope of Israel, arguing that Indigenous peoples of the Americas might descend from the lost tribes. Such ideas gained traction during the Age of Exploration, when European encounters with distant peoples fueled biblical interpretations of global history.
The concept also plays a significant role in the Latter-day Saint movement. The Book of Mormon teaches that groups of Israelites migrated to the Americas before the Babylonian exile and became ancestors of some Native American peoples. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints emphasizes both a spiritual and eventual physical “gathering of Israel,” including the restoration of the lost tribes.
Historical Perspectives
Modern scholarship generally concludes that while deportations did occur, the idea of ten entire tribes disappearing wholesale is unlikely. Large-scale deportations took place in parts of Transjordan and Galilee, and certain tribal identities faded from historical records. However:
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Many Israelites likely remained in the region of Samaria.
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Some joined the Kingdom of Judah.
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Others were absorbed into surrounding populations.
The New Standard Jewish Encyclopedia summarizes the prevailing scholarly view: some members of the northern tribes remained in the land, some assimilated into neighboring peoples, and others merged with Judean exiles. Unlike the Babylonian exile of Judah—after which a clear return is documented—the Assyrian deportees appear to have gradually lost a distinct collective identity.
Search and Cultural Fascination
The disappearance of the tribes has inspired centuries of speculation, exploration, and myth. Various groups across Asia, Africa, and the Americas have claimed descent from them. Historian Tudor Parfitt argues that the legend became especially influential during European colonial expansion, shaping encounters with Indigenous peoples.
Modern genetic studies have explored possible connections between Jewish diaspora communities and certain groups claiming Israelite ancestry. Research on communities such as the Lemba of southern Africa and the Bene Israel of India has revealed evidence of Middle Eastern paternal ancestry, though such findings do not confirm direct descent from specific biblical tribes.
Anthropologist Shalva Weil has documented numerous global traditions linking communities to the Ten Lost Tribes, illustrating the enduring power of the narrative.
Conclusion
The Ten Lost Tribes occupy a space between history, theology, and legend. While ancient deportations are historically attested, the notion of ten tribes vanishing entirely has likely been shaped and expanded by later religious imagination. The idea continues to influence religious thought, cultural identity, and historical speculation across the world.
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